School Suspensions: What the Research Shows About Long-Term Harm

The letter home from the school is usually terse. Your child has been suspended for one to three days. Please arrange supervision. They may return on a specified date. What the letter does not include — and what most administrators do not say, perhaps because they do not know — is what the research shows happens next. Suspension is among the most studied disciplinary interventions in American education, and the findings are not ambiguous. Suspended students are significantly more likely to drop out, significantly more likely to come into contact with the juvenile justice system, and significantly more likely to experience diminished lifetime earnings. These are not marginal effects. They persist after controlling for prior behavior, family income, and school quality. For parents, understanding this research is essential — not because it means every suspension is unjust, but because it means every suspension deserves close scrutiny.

Key Takeaways

• Students who are suspended are three times more likely to drop out of school than peers who were never suspended, according to longitudinal data from Skiba and colleagues.
• Racial disparities in suspension rates are large, persistent, and not explained by differences in behavior — Black students are suspended at rates 3 to 4 times higher than white students for the same infractions.
• The “school-to-prison pipeline” is not metaphor — research documents a direct statistical relationship between suspension/expulsion and later juvenile justice involvement.
• Restorative justice programs in schools have shown consistent reductions in suspension rates, with some studies showing 50–80% decreases while maintaining or improving school safety.
• Parents have specific rights when a child is suspended, including the right to request a hearing and, for students with disabilities, the right to a manifestation determination.

The Skiba Research: What the School-to-Prison Pipeline Evidence Shows

The term “school-to-prison pipeline” was given empirical grounding largely through the work of Russell Skiba, a researcher at Indiana University’s Equity Project. Skiba and colleagues published a series of studies beginning in the early 2000s documenting the statistical pathway from school discipline to justice system involvement. Their 2002 analysis, The Color of Discipline, examined suspension data from a large urban Midwestern school district and found that Black students were more than three times as likely to be suspended as white students for similar behavior, and that this disparity could not be explained by socioeconomic factors or differential rates of misbehavior.

The mechanism connecting suspension to dropout and incarceration involves multiple pathways. Time out of school means lost instructional time and increased academic lag. Unsupervised time during suspension increases exposure to delinquent peer networks. The stigma of suspension can undermine a student’s sense of belonging and academic identity. And repeated suspension signals to students that the school does not want them — a message that, over time, many students act on by disengaging entirely.

A 2011 study by Balfanz, Byrnes, and Fox, using longitudinal data from Philadelphia schools, found that students who were suspended in 6th grade were significantly more likely to be involved with the justice system by 9th grade, with the effect strongest for students who had no prior behavioral history — suggesting that first suspensions, particularly for minor infractions, can function as a critical inflection point.

The Racial Disparity Data

The Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC), administered by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights, provides the most comprehensive national data on school discipline by race. The 2020–21 CRDC data showed that Black students represented 15% of enrolled students nationally but 38% of students receiving out-of-school suspensions. Students with disabilities received 26% of suspensions despite representing 17% of enrollment. Native American students were also suspended at significantly higher rates than white peers.

These disparities are not confined to high-poverty districts or schools with high rates of behavioral incidents. Research by Edward Morris and Brea Perry, published in American Sociological Review in 2016, examined a nationally representative dataset and found that racial disparities in punishment existed across school types, income levels, and regions — suggesting that the mechanism is not primarily differential behavior but differential interpretation of behavior and differential administrative responses to similar behavior.

This matters for parents because it means that if you are a family of color, the risk profile for your child is statistically different from white peers at the same school, for the same behavior. That is not a parental perception. It is measured and replicated in the peer-reviewed literature.

What Restorative Justice Research Shows

Restorative justice (RJ) in schools refers to practices adapted from criminal justice reform: structured conversations in which harm is acknowledged, those affected are heard, and agreements are made about repairing relationships. In a school context, this typically includes restorative circles (community-building conversations held regularly, not only after incidents), peer mediation, and restorative conferences following incidents rather than automatic suspension.

The research on school-based RJ programs is growing and generally positive, though the quality of studies varies. A 2018 randomized controlled trial by Augustine and colleagues at RAND Corporation — one of the most methodologically rigorous studies to date — followed 22 Pittsburgh middle schools implementing RJ over two years. Schools that implemented RJ saw a 34% decrease in suspension rates compared to control schools. The effect was largest for Black male students. Importantly, teacher and staff perceptions of school safety did not decline in RJ schools, addressing the concern that reducing suspensions would increase disorder.

A 2021 analysis of Oakland Unified School District — which implemented a district-wide RJ initiative — found that over a ten-year period, suspension rates fell by 87% while graduation rates increased. The causal attribution is complicated in an observational study, but the correlation between RJ implementation and improved outcomes is consistent with experimental findings.

Intervention Type	Study / Source	Suspension Rate Change	Safety Outcomes
Restorative Justice (RCT)	Augustine et al., RAND (2018)	-34% vs. control	No decline in staff safety perceptions
Restorative Justice (district-wide)	Oakland USD (2005–2019)	-87% over 10 years	Graduation rate improved
Positive Behavioral Interventions (PBIS)	Horner et al., Meta-analysis (2010)	Significant reductions	Improved school climate reported
Check-In/Check-Out (CICO)	Hawken & Horner (2003)	Reduced office referrals 65%	Maintained in multiple replications
Zero Tolerance (for comparison)	APA Zero Tolerance Task Force (2008)	Not effective at reducing behavior	Increased dropout, no safety improvement

The American Psychological Association’s 2008 Zero Tolerance Task Force report reviewed more than a decade of research on zero-tolerance discipline policies and concluded that they had not achieved their stated goals of improving school safety, had increased dropout rates, and had been applied in a racially disproportionate manner. The report is among the most comprehensive reviews of this literature and its conclusions have been replicated in subsequent research.

What Parents Can Do When Their Child Is Suspended

Parents have more rights in suspension situations than most realize, and asserting them effectively can change outcomes. Here is what to know.

For short suspensions (10 days or fewer): Most states give schools broad discretion for short out-of-school suspensions. However, parents should request a meeting with the principal immediately, in writing, to understand what specific behavior led to the suspension and what the re-entry plan is. Ask specifically whether the incident involved subjective judgment calls (attitude, tone, “defiance”) rather than objective safety violations.

For longer suspensions or expulsions: Students are entitled to due process, including notice of charges and an opportunity to be heard before a long suspension is imposed. In practice, this means a formal hearing. Ask for the specific policy and documentation in writing.

For students with IEPs or 504 plans: Under IDEA, a suspension of more than 10 cumulative school days in a year triggers a Manifestation Determination Review (MDR). In an MDR, the IEP team must determine whether the behavior was caused by or substantially related to the student’s disability. If yes, the suspension cannot proceed as normal and the IEP must be reviewed. This is a legally protected right that is frequently not proactively offered. Parents should request it explicitly and immediately. For more on special education rights in discipline contexts, see our article on accommodations vs. modifications in school special education.

Requesting school discipline data: The Civil Rights Data Collection data is publicly searchable by school and district. You can look up suspension rates, racial breakdowns, and disability-related data for your specific school at ocrdata.ed.gov. Knowing your school’s data before a suspension happens gives you important context.

What to Watch for Over the Next 3 Months

If your child attends a school with high suspension rates, take three concrete steps in the next 90 days. First, look up your school’s CRDC data to understand suspension rates and racial breakdowns — schools are required to make this data available. Second, ask your school administrator what their current discipline policy is and whether they use any restorative practices. A school that cannot name specific restorative programs is likely relying heavily on exclusionary discipline. Third, if your child has a learning difference, ADHD, or any diagnosis that affects behavior, ensure their 504 plan or IEP explicitly documents how behavioral incidents should be handled — this documentation is your primary protection in a suspension situation. See also our broader coverage on chronic absenteeism in schools for context on how missed school days — whether from suspension or other causes — compound over time.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can a school suspend my child without telling me why?

No. Schools are required to provide notice of the reason for a suspension. For short suspensions, this is typically informal. For suspensions of more than a few days or expulsions, federal and state due process requirements apply, and you are entitled to a written statement of charges and an opportunity to respond. Request everything in writing.

Does a school suspension go on a permanent record?

Discipline records are maintained by schools and can be shared with other schools if a student transfers. For most college applications, only expulsions require disclosure. However, some applications ask about suspensions, and the answer matters — honesty is required and context can be provided. Short-term suspensions typically do not appear on records shared with colleges, but policies vary by state and district.

What is zero tolerance and does research support it?

Zero tolerance policies mandate specific punishments — typically suspension or expulsion — for defined infractions, removing administrator discretion. The American Psychological Association’s 2008 task force reviewed the research and concluded that zero tolerance policies did not improve school safety, increased dropout risk, and were applied with significant racial disparity. Most major education research and policy organizations have moved away from endorsing zero tolerance approaches.

Can a suspension be appealed?

Yes. Most school districts have a formal appeal process for suspensions and expulsions. For expulsions, a board-level hearing is typically available. For shorter suspensions, the process varies. Request the district’s discipline policy in writing and ask specifically about the appeals process. For students with disabilities, the MDR process is a separate protection layer that must happen before certain disciplinary actions proceed.

What does “restorative justice” actually look like in a school?

In practice, school-based RJ typically includes regular community circles where students and teachers discuss norms and resolve conflicts before they escalate; peer mediation programs where trained student mediators help resolve disputes; and restorative conferences after incidents, where the student who caused harm, those affected, and relevant adults meet to discuss impact and agree on repair steps. The emphasis is on accountability and relationship repair rather than removal.

How do suspension rates vary by school? Where can I find data?

The U.S. Department of Education’s Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) publishes searchable data by school and district at ocrdata.ed.gov. You can look up out-of-school suspension rates, in-school suspension rates, expulsion rates, and breakdowns by race, sex, and disability status for your specific school.

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About the author — Ricky Flores is the founder of HiWave Makers and an electrical engineer with 15+ years of experience building consumer technology at Apple, Samsung, and Texas Instruments. He writes about how kids learn to build, think, and create in a tech-saturated world. Read more at hiwavemakers.com.

Sources

1. Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The Color of Discipline: Sources of Racial and Gender Disproportionality in School Punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021320817372
2. Balfanz, R., Byrnes, V., & Fox, J. (2014). Sent Home and Put Off-Track: The Antecedents, Disproportionalities, and Consequences of Being Suspended in the 9th Grade. Journal of Applied Research on Children, 5(2). https://digitalcommons.library.tmc.edu/childrenatrisk/vol5/iss2/13/
3. Augustine, C. H., Engberg, J., Grimm, G. E., Lee, E., Wang, E. L., Christianson, K., & Joseph, A. A. (2018). Can Restorative Practices Improve School Climate and Curb Suspensions? An Evaluation of the Impact of Restorative Practices in a Mid-Sized Urban School District. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2165.html
4. American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force. (2008). Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the Schools? American Psychologist, 63(9), 852–862. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.9.852
5. Morris, E. W., & Perry, B. L. (2016). The Punishment Gap: School Suspension and Racial Disparities in Achievement. Social Problems, 63(1), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spv026
6. U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. (2021). 2020–21 Civil Rights Data Collection: Discipline. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/
7. Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Anderson, C. M. (2010). Examining the Evidence Base for School-Wide Positive Behavior Support. Focus on Exceptional Children, 42(8), 1–14.